The Michigan Frontier: An Examination of Early Settlement in Charlevoix County

Kenneth Johnson

Ludlow Fire insurance Map of Charlevoix, MI. 1889- Retrieved from Lake Charlevoix Association Website

Abstract

This Wiki examines Charlevoix County, in Northern Michigan, and compares the historical events and developments that occurred there with the patterns of frontier development laid out by Frederick Jackson Tuner in his Frontier Thesis. By doing so, this paper seeks to support the assertion that while the patterns of development that are commonly attributed to certain areas  commonly understood as "The" West undoubtedly occurred there, the impacts of frontier development in the way that Turner described it was not exclusive to a  the specific an isolated "frontier" region. Through analysis of the history of Charlevoix County it can be seen that the same pattern of taming and adapting to the the wilderness, which Turner argued is essential to the creation of American identity, occurred not only in far the western part of the United States, but also in the northern woods of Michigan.  

 

Introduction 

 Susan Gray states in her study of Kalamazoo Country and the “Yankee Frontier” that, “The Midwest…is a timeless place bounded by where and what it is not—The East, The South, The West, and Canada.”^[1]. In some ways, this is a difficult statement to refute. Indeed, geographically the region is defined by other regions into which it does not quite fit. However, from a historical standpoint it should be understood that many of the experiences that took place within the Midwest region are similar to patterns of growth and that occurred in the American West. The patterns of growth that are commonly attributed to "The" West are by no means absolutely exclusive to a single defined area. 

 

1880 Lithograph of Charlevoix and Round Lake. By this point the lumber industry had become a major part of the local economy.^[2]

 

In a modern context, there undoubtedly exist a very specific cultural association of various events, ideas, people, and landscapes with the terms "The" West and "frontier". As Kerwin Klein states, there even exist certain groups of historians who, "contend that only the arid, trans-Mississippi West is really "The" West"^[3]..  The common cultural understanding of "The" West and "frontier" simply does not usually include references to the Midwest. Still, as the remainder of this paper will seek to display, the Midwest should perhaps be a subject of greater focus when studying patterns of western expansion and the concept of the American frontier. 

 

 

Framework and Context

The framework for this particular study is the famous thesis written by Frederick Jackson Turner in 1893, The Significance of the Frontier in American History^[4]. Turner described the frontier as, "the meeting point between savagery and civilization". In his paper he argues that not only did the frontier provide opportunity, it helped to shape American identity and democracy. Admittedly, some of his arguments are hard to agree with, most notably the assertion that the American experience did not include a pattern of conquest of, "other growing peoples". His paper also has a tone of strong nationalist sentiments and is undeniably a product of the age in which it was written. Still, regardless of the fact that the Turner Thesis does not reflect some of the more nuanced understandings of the violent history of American development that are beginning to be more fully analyzed by modern historians, it should not be discounted as it remains an important historical work.  As Allen Bogue notes in his study of Turner's teaching and writings, his thesis and understanding of the development of American identity through the frontier has left a lasting impression on a modern understanding of the place of expansion in explaining the American experience^[5]. 

 

Using the themes laid out by Turner presents an interesting framework from which to better understand not only the progression of American development and the gradual "closing" of the frontier, but also allows the contribution made by different places towards this development of "American-ness" to be examined. By doing so, it can be seen that while the contributions of events and frontiers of the regions of the American west, which are often regarded as "The" West or the "frontier",were undeniably areas towards which that the creation of uniquely American democratic ideals and notions of independence should be attributed, they were not the only place where these progressions of development occurred. The "fall line" described by Turner and patterns of exploration, seeking of "free land", and growing distrust of authority did not occur in a steady east to west progression, they were themes that helped develop American identity in a variety of locales. 

 

The assertion made in this paper is likely one with which Turner would have agreed.  In his opening chapter he notes that "By 1880 the settled area had been pushed into Northen Michigan". This brief mention, however, has not lent itself to  great deal of study of the region as a "frontier". Even in this class the focus has been largely on the push westward by Americans, themes of identity in areas west of the Mississippi, and the development of these same areas. Turner displayed in his writings that his understanding of the concept of "frontier" in American history was relatively nuanced. He shows that in a variety of areas, the Midwest being one of them, the pattern of frontier development occurred. By reapplying his thesis to the history of Michigan and Charlevoix County this understanding can be studied greater in depth, and doing this allows the way in which the concept of "frontier" has evolved and been applied to American identity to be more clearly understood. 

 

Why Study Michigan and Charlevoix County?

Some may ask what the reason is for choosing to spend time studying such a small chapter of history? To be entirely upfront, there is little that makes Charlevoix county stand out from any other county in the upper Midwest. The history of Charlevoix county is interesting, especially for someone like the author of this paper who calls Charlevoix Country home, but it is not especially unique. Other counties in the area, and even other counties in other parts of the Midwest likely have histories that are not especially different than that of Charlevoix. Many arguably have histories that are even more interesting and dramatic. In many ways, it could be argued that rural Charlevoix County is surprisingly average. It is exactly for this reason that the study of the history of Charlevoix County is useful.  

 

The study of Charlevoix County should not be viewed as any sort of outlier in the space of American history. Instead, one might seek to view its history and the study of the events that happened there as just a first chapter in a much larger work. As a small region in the Midwest that experienced growth patterns similar to those that occurred in areas more traditionally associated with the frontier and the American West, Charlevoix County's history is just one of many. By studying the patterns of growth that occurred in areas such as this it will be possible to build off of Turner's thesis. Turner argued that unique American identity was forged on the frontiers of America, and by looking at counties such as Charlevoix it will be possible to prove that this did not just happen as people moved west, as many people assume. Rather, it can be seen that this process happened on a variety of similar comparative frontiers across the country. The shifting "process" of the creation of an "American West" was not an isolated process in only certain regions of the country, but instead one that affected a greater  part of the nation in similar ways. 

 

Using Michigan, and specifically Charlevoix County, as a case study for a "Midwestern Frontier" does have a number of advantages with regard to collecting information, though. Michigan is somewhat unique in terms of Midwestern states due to the fact that it was a relative latecomer to statehood in the region. The state's closest neighbors, including Ohio, Indiana and Illinois were able to qualify for statehood decades before Michigan due to their higher populations in 1803, 1816, and 1818, respectively. Michigan did not become a state until 1837.^[6].

 

River Map: From Smithsonian Institute Exhibit on American Waterways

 

 

 

It would be hard to argue that the landscapes and geographies of these other states are vastly different from that of much of Michigan's lower peninsula, but the physical makeup of the state's environment likely did play a role in this occurrence. Being further north Michigan does experience somewhat more extreme temperatures, especially in the winter. However, plant hardiness maps do not suggest that the difference is drastic ^[7]. Historically speaking, perhaps the most critical geographic feature that played into Michigan's late arrival was the way in which the area's waterways restricted early settlement. Michigan's lower peninsula, of course, is surrounded by the Great Lakes on three sides. This is a defining feature of the landscape of Michigan, and it ultimately plays an important role in understanding why the area remained "frontier" for so long. Despite being critically important for certain aspects of commerce for centuries, the location of Michigan within the Great Lakes isolate it from major settlement in the earliest days of the nation. It is important to note that the last British troops did not surrender their forts in the Michigan territory until 1796, so even five years before Ohio entered the union as a state Michigan was still somewhat contested territory^[8]. Furthermore,  most of Michigan's rivers are part of the Great Lakes water basin, whereas the waterways of Ohio, Indiana and Illinois are largely tributaries of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. During the early 19th century, especially before rail travel took hold as an effective means of transport, these two rivers were the major arteries for commerce in the young United States. While the "boom towns" in other parts of the Midwest began to grow and flourish, Michigan remained significantly more isolated.

 

(For more information on the Inland Waterways of the Early United States, click HERE to access a Smithsonian Institute online exhibit on the subject) 

 

Late development meant that resources documenting the progression of the frontier are somewhat more accessible with regard to Michigan. As with later parts of development in the American West, there even exists some photographic evidence of early development that makes analysis of the region especially rewarding. With Charlevoix County specifically, extensive historical work carried out by Bob Miles, his son David Miles, as well as other members of the Charlevoix Historical society, has preserved a rich collection of photographs, newspaper articles and documented recollections of the early days of Charlevoix county. These archives make it even easier to see the way in which Charlevoix County was very much a "frontier community" in its earliest days. 

 

The Frontier Thesis and Charlevoix County

 

As one begins to spend more time studying the history of Charlevoix County, one is able to quickly see how truly untamed the landscape was only a few decades before the town transformed into a destination for turn of the century tourists who sought to build extravagant summer homes on the beaches of Pine Lake (Lake Charlevoix) and Lake Michigan in order to escape the oppressive heat and dirty city conditions of places like Detroit and Chicago. 

 

The Indian Trader's Frontier

In his depiction of the evolutionary process of taming the American frontier, the concept of "The Indian Trader's Frontier" is an important starting point for understanding the process of creating American identity.  It is also the easiest to relate to the Charlevoix region because of the frontier events of trade and exploration directly alluded to by Turner which occurred in areas encompassed by Charlevoix County today as well as the surrounding regions. 

 

Turner argues that the period of development defined by the fur trade was the most primitive of the process of progression, but that it also "pioneered the way for civilization" (Turner. P 25).  As Turner notes, included in this progression was the opening of the Great Lakes region to trade by the French, and ultimately the establishment of trade networks in the region. Pierre Francois Xavier de Charlevoix, the namesake of Charlevoix County, was a French explorer and intellectual who was sent out to examine the French territories in North America. While not engaging in trade himself, his work set the foundation for the patterns of trade which Turner references in his thesis.  

Father Charlevoix

 

Along with traveling the Great Lakes, Father Charlevoix had a direct connection the the area that would become Charlevoix County. While heading southward from Fort Mackinac in the Summer of 1721, Charlevoix and his companions were caught in a squall while heading southwards towards Grand Traverse Bay. Charlevoix notes in his journal that they sought shelter on, "a little unnamed island" ^[9]. As David Miles notes, since there is only one island near enough the shore to be reached by canoe between the Straits of Mackinac and Grand Traverse Bay, it can be concluded that Charlevoix made camp on Fisherman's Island, which is now a part of Fishman's Island State Park; located within the boundaries of Charlevoix County.

 

Charlevoix's 1721 journal reference to Fisherman's Island; now a part of Charlevoix County.

 

While Charlevoix's camp on the island may not be particularly noteworthy in terms of historical significance on its own, the premise behind his journey certainly is.  Even without relating other parts of Charlevoix's history to the Turner thesis and the later development of American identity on the frontier, it can be seen that the regions of the Midwest were undeniably frontier landscapes. While the rest of this paper will also seeks to display how other aspects of the Turner thesis can be applied to Charlevoix County, it is equally important to remember that the region played an important role in the development of the frontier. The Midwest may not be remembered commonly as "frontier" or "The" West today, but it undoubtedly played a role, which Turner recognized, in the development of bringing and adapting European cultures to the New World. 

 

 

 

Lawlessness,Violence, Independence, and Distrust of Authority

Perhaps one of the most poignant aspects of Turner's thesis is the way in which he argues that the pushing of the frontier line was accompanied with strong, at times violent, distrust of authority. Turner refers to this as a, "frontier dislike of taxation and the restraints of law and order in general." ^[10]. In the case of Charlevoix County, the way this unique American attitude developed in the wildernesses of the frontier can be most easily seen through one of the most colorful, and violent, chapters of Charlevoix's history. 

 

Photograph of James Strang^[11]

 

James Jesse Strang was the charismatic leader of a faction of Mormons who had separated from the followers of Brigham Young and headed north for Wisconsin and then the largest island in Lake Michigan; Beaver Island, which is a part of Charlevoix County. While the entire narrative of the Mormon experience, including the Strangite habitation of Charlevoix County, is an extremely complex part of American history, it suffices to say for the sake of this analysis that James Strang garnered considerable influence, and even power, after leading his followers to Michigan. It is also important to note that a great deal of misinformation surrounds this history as well. Strang is often colloquially  referred to as the "King" of Beaver Island. While he never considered himself to be a ruler in the sense of usurping the power of the US government, he had been crowed as the leader of his faithful followers  ^[12]. Furthermore, his election to the Michigan house of representatives put him in a position of representative power that put him and his followers at odds with newcomers to the community, which likely furthered the tensions between him, some of his followers, and non-Mormon settlers in Charlevoix County. 

 

Extract from 1855 Michigan Congressional Proceedings. James Strang motioning to rename Beaver Island to "Manitue" ^[13]

 

Tensions were high between the Mormons, led by Strang, and other seasonal settlers who were using the area to fish and preparing to make permanent homesteads in the area in the early periods of settlement in Charlevoix County. Shots had been fired between the two groups as early as 1953. When John Dixon, who would become the second permanent settler of Charlevoix, began bringing provisions to prepare a homestead gallows were erected with his likeness hanging in effigy. When the Dixon's lumber was stolen by Mormon agitators in the middle of the night, Mrs. Dixon, "grabbed a pistol" and struck out for the Bear Creek Mission some thirty miles north to find her husband. They returned to Charlevoix with a party of armed Indians and  demanded that their preperty be returned (Miles. Vol II. P27). In her obituary in 1886, Mrs. Dixon was remembered as, "exhibit(ing) courage and constancy in acts which have gone into history as the brave deeds of a brave woman." during, "troublesome times of Mormon occupancy"^[14].

 

Writings of James Strang in response to accusations of being a "King"^[15]

 

Ultimately,though, it would not be the gentile settlers who would continue the pattern of violence that stemmed from Strang's influence over the area. Disillusionment with Strang's religious philosophies caused tensions and disillusionment within the Mormon community as well and in 1956 two of his angry followers, Thomas Bedford and Alexander Wentworth, shot and killed Strang. They were released only a few days later in Mackinac, hailed as heroes by the non-Mormons in the area according to David Miles. 

 

 

Newspaper article following Strang's murder^[16]

 

Of course, both of these vignettes should be approached with a certain level of skepticism. With regard to the Dixon's and their stolen property, it is important to remembers that a great deal of animosity existed towards Mormons during this period of American history. This was much of the motivation for moving to locations on the frontier in the first place.  The factors that had set the stage for violence should be examined more fully before either side of the conflict is hailed as more just than the other. Furthermore, the reasons behind Strang's murder should not be attributed solely to his position of political power and influence in the area. Internal conflicts in the church or more personal may well have played a larger role in spurring Bedford and Wentworth to kill Strang. While the events are certainly useful for interpreting patterns of American development on the frontier, their actions should not be viewed solely as vigilante justice against an oppressive "King" without access to more complete evidence. 

 

 

Still, the events surrounding the Battle of Pine River can help with comparison of Michigan to the frontier as described by Turner. The fact remained that Strang had a great deal of influence in the area and a certain level of control over a large part of the early populous on Beaver island at the time; he was the region's authority figure. In an area with few other residents his followers would have sat on juries, acted as officers of the law, and would have had greater leeway in acting outside of the law if it benefited Strang and his other followers. For those non-Mormons seeking to build homes in the county,  or those who no longer felt they could live under the influence of Strang, it is more understandable to see why a certain level of willingness to resort to violence would develop, as well as a distrust of authority. These events can be seen as similar to those more traditionally associated with the "traditional" West, and shouldn't be seen as drastically different from other events commonly associated with "The" West, like vigilante justice or range wars.  With a better understanding of the tumultuous early periods of settlement of Charlevoix County it is easier to see that it underwent the same patterns of frontier violence and lawlessness that Turner argues were central to the anti-authoritarian mindset of the American people. 

 

 

 

Understanding the Landscape and Concepts of "Free Land"

Building off of some of the earliest known historical findings from the Charlevoix area, it becomes even easier to understand the ways in which Charlevoix County shared many characteristics with places more commonly understood as "frontier" in the sense that Tuner, as well as many in more recent times, understood, and continue to understand, it. An archaeological excavation led by researches from Michigan State University in the 1970s revealed some nomadic habitation of the area that is downtown Charlevoix as far back as 1500 B.C., which was then followed by a period of virtual abandonment of the area that lasted nearly one thousand years.  Researcher Margaret Holman also asserts that following re-habitation in the late woodland period the area was lightly inhabited seasonally by native people, but much of the remained largely uncultivated even into the mid to late 19th century.^[17]

 

Of course, the mere presence of native peoples is not enough to suggest that early settlement in Charlevoix County could be considered frontier settlement that fostered American ideals in the same sense that other parts of the more commonly referred to areas of the "The" West were.  The fact that archaeologist suggest that even with some habitation by indigenous people much of the landscape was left without permanent settlement for long periods of time makes the argument for including Michigan as an American "frontier" easier, though. Recall that Turner argued that the place where American identity was created was the areas where settlers were forced to "return to primitive conditions".  While in reality Charlevoix was far from an empty space, when the first European settlers came to the regions the way in which they approached settlement on the seemingly uninhabited land coincides with the concept of "free land" laid out by Turner. 

 

Turner's concept of "free land" coincides with the theme mentioned frequently in this class idealistic depictions of the frontier. Rather than land with a history, areas of the frontier were regarded as untamed and open for cultivation.

 

Local Charlevoix Historian David Miles notes that the "first permanent white settlers" of the region,  Medad and Phoebe Thompson, were in many ways settlers who capitalized off of similar notions of an uninhabited land. As David Miles notes, the Mr. and Mrs. Thompson were originally from New York and Pennsylvania, respectively. Attracted to the Mormon faith, they had originally struck out for Missouri in search of finding a frontier community in which to worship with other members of their faith. As with many other Mormons of the era, the Thompson's were essentially attracted by the concept of "free land" upon which to live unmolested. Following the Strangite faction north to Beaver Island only to become disillusioned with the church, the Thompson's found themselves once again in need of a place to call home. Still retaining their Mormon faith and still in search of a place to practice in peace, they chose to remaining in Charlevoix County. Building a farm that David Miles would term "extensive and sucessful", they chose to begin anew on the shores of Pine Lake.  

 

 

Medad and Phoebe Thompson

 

Through this movement and eventual settlement the concept of "free land", as denoted by Turner, can be viewed. The Thompson's original religious pilgrimage from the East Coast was a move that was part of the colorful narrative of the "traditional" west. The well known Mormon migration, of which the Thompson's took part, should be viewed as a process that embodies the Turnerian idea of seeking out a new home on the lands of the American frontier that was viewed as empty and "free". Furthermore, when the Thomson's continued north for Beaver Island, they did so once again in search of "free" land on the frontier.  The Strangite migration to the north was the result of factional disagreements within the church, but the motive behind the continued migration was the same. Just as Brigham Young had led the faithful to the banks of the Salt Lake to create new lives, James Jesse Strang had led his followers to the wilderness of Northern Michigan, specifically the frontier of Charlevoix County, to begin again. 

 

 

 

 

Even when the Thompson's  left the church they continued the pattern of creating lives in a frontier on the edge of civilization in an area that was regarded, rightly or wrongfully, as empty. After the violence that had accompanied the Battle of Pine River in 1853, a skirmish that had risen amid tensions arising from illegal payment of Indians with whiskey by non-Mormon fishermen, the mainland  of Charlevoix did not have a single European settlement and the seasonal fishermen of the region fled. The area that the Thompson's would have arrived at on the mainland after leaving Beaver Island would not have only had the appearance of being empty, but because of the flight of even the fishermen it would have also looked abandoned. David Miles describes the landscape that the Thompson's faced as an "astonishingly beautiful but unforgiving wilderness.". Considering that it would be another year before the next European family, the Dixon's, would arrive and also settle in one of the abandoned fishing shanties, it does not take a great deal of imagination to recognize that Charlevoix Country was a "frontier". Though historical evidence proves that the area was far from empty before the arrival of the Thompson's, the area shared with other more traditional areas considered to be "frontier" similar traits of sparse habitation in a wilderness that was "free" to be developed and cultivated. 

 

 

 

Conclusions and Reassement of the "Closing" of the Frontier

Steamer "City of Charlevoix" enters Round Lake. Date unknown.

 

In the years and decades following initial settlement and the Civil War, the continued evolution of Chrlevoix's "frontier" would be swift. In many ways, though, its place in the wilderness and on the edge of society in its early years would direct the ways in which Charlevoix would grow in the years to come. Its close proximity as a "frontier" so near more "civilized" parts of the nation would be especially influential. The completely untouched and "free" nature of the land quickly became somewhat of a thing of the past, especially as logging and fishing industries grew in the area, but the biggest change to Charlevoix came with the growth of industries in major cities like Detroit and Chicago. With improved railroad and ferry services Northern Michigan became recognized as an accessible "wilderness" where wealthy city dwellers could escape hot and oppressive conditions of early industrial metropolises. By the turn of the century extravagant hotels, summer homes and yachts began appearing where only years before the Thompson's and Dixon's had prepared their first homesteads.  

 

Hemingway in the woods of Northern Michigan^[18]

 

 While the frontier certainly closed quickly, the impact it left on American identity did not. Turner argued that it was these frontier spaces where unique American ideals grew and developed. This remained the case with the "frontier" Charlevoix County even as tourism grew to dominate the region. Perhaps the most famous of the summer resort transplants was the young Ernest Hemingway, who spent his boyhood summers in the area hunting, fishing and hiking the woods of Charlevoix County and the surrounding areas. His semi-biographical collection of short stories, The Nick Adams Stories, describe a land that, while increasingly inhabited, still allowed the young writer to foster the fierce independence, patriotism, and at times blatant and violent disregard for that would become defining characteristics of an extremely influential, and quintessentially American, author. 

 

 

Marriage license of Ernest Hemingway and Hadley Richardson, Hemingway's first wife. They were married in the village of Horton Bay on Lake Charlevoix in 1921.

 

Throughout its history Charlevoix County has developed and evolved along lines of a space that fits well with Turner's concept of an American "frontier". Though the history of Charlevoix is perhaps not generally remembered as dramatically as more traditional interpretations of the "frontier" and "The" West, its development was essentially the same. The influences of exploration, new "free"lands, and a development of strong distrust of authority were just as present in Charlevoix as they were in the Mississippi Valley, the Rocky Mountains or the California Hills. It should be recognized that the Charlevoix region, as a "frontier", was similar in the way it fostered a unique American identity. 

 

 

Acknowledgements

Thanks to the Bentley Historical Library, as well as the Charlevoix Historical Society and the Harsha House Museum for assistance with primary source research. Unless otherwise cited images are from the Charlevoix Historical Society Archives and their two published works, Bob Miles' Charlevoix Volumes I & II^[19][20].